Abstract  The sustainability of biofuels, including the greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction that they achieve, is getting increased attention. Life cycle analyses (LCAs) of biofuels production routes show that the GHG savings may vary significantly for different biofuels. An increasing number of governments are therefore looking for options to differentiate between biofuels according to their actual GHG savings. Accurate calculations of GHG savings thus become increasingly important. This paper deals with an omission of current LCAs for ethanol and ETBE blends, which leads to an underestimation of their calculated GHG savings. Current studies do not take into account that refiners will adjust their refinery operation when bioethanol or ETBE is added, because of the different characteristics of these products. The analysis indicates that the net effect of these refinery modifications on the GHG savings is positive, i.e. GHG-emissions reduce in both cases. The emission reduction is highest in the case of ETBE. We recommend to include this effect in future LCA calculations for ethanol and ETBE. As the calculation model used for this study is only a simplified representation of the EU refinery sector, we also advise to perform a more detailed analysis of these effects using more elaborate refinery models.

Abstract  In compliance with the Clean Air Act Section 211b for fuel and fuel additive registration, petroleum and oxygenate manufacturers have conducted comparative toxicology testing of evaporative emissions of gasoline alone, and gasoline plus ether and alcohol oxygenates. Here we present results from the neurotoxicity component of this program. The functional observation battery (FOB) with the addition of motor activity (MA) testing, hemotoxylin and eosin staining of brain tissue sections, and brain regional analysis of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were used to assess behavioral changes, neuropathology and gliosis, respectively, following inhalation exposure to the test agents. Seven vapor condensates of gasoline (GVC) or gasoline+ether [MTBE (G/MTBE), ethyl t-butyl ether (G/ETBE), t-amyl methyl ether (G/TAME), diisopropyl ether (G/DIPE)] or alchohol [ethanol (G/EtOH), tbutyl alcohol (G/TBA)] oxygenates were evaluated. Sprague-Dawley rats of both sexes were exposed to the test agents (2000-20, 000 mg/m3)by inhalation for 13 weeks (6 hrs/day, 5 days/week). FOB and MA were conducted on non-exposure days, at least 16 days post-initiation of exposures; neuropathology and GFAP analyses were conducted at the study termination (13 weeks). A recovery group was included to monitor resolution of behavioral changes. FOB and MA data for all agents, except G/TBA, were negative. G/TBA behavioral effects resolved during recovery. Neuropathology was negative for all groups. Analyses of GFAP revealed multi-brain region increases (as great as 150% of air controls) limited largely to males of the G/EtOH group. Small changes (mostly increases) in GFAP were observed for other test agents but these effects were not consistent across sex, brain region or exposure concentration. The results are consistent with the incidence of a mild gliosis in males of the G/EtOH group. Results of these studies will be used for comparative risk assessments of gasoline/oxygenate blends.

Abstract  In compliance with the Clean Air Act Section 211b requirements for fuel and fuel additive registration, the petroleum industry and oxygenate manufacturers conducted comparative toxicology testing on evaporative emissions of gasoline alone and gasoline containing ether or alcohol oxygenates. To mimic real world exposures, a distillation method was employed that produced test material similar in composition to the headspace vapor from an automotive fuel tank at near maximum in-use temperatures. Gasoline vapor was generated by a single-step distillation from a 1000-gallon Pfaudler glass-lined kettle wherein approximately 15 to 20 % of the starting material was slowly vaporized, separated, condensed and recovered as test sample. This fraction was termed gasoline vapor condensate (GVC) and was prepared for each of the seven test samples, namely: gasoline alone (GVC), or gasoline + an ether (MTBE, ETBE, TAME, or DIPE), or gasoline + an alcohol (EtOH or TBA). Oxygenate concentrations were generally higher in the vapor phase than the liquid fuel starting material. Additional details about the methodology for generating the GVCs and data on their respective chemical compositions will be presented in the poster. The GVCs were analyzed under GLP conditions using capillary GC or GC MS methods. These materials were used as test samples for the subsequent inhalation toxicology studies described in the accompanying series of abstracts. These studies included evaluations for subchronic toxicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, and chronic toxicity / carcinogenicity. Results of these studies will be submitted to the USEPA and be used for comparative risk assessments of gasoline and gasoline/ oxygenate blends.

Abstract  The plant was opened in 1977 to refine crude oil into gasoline, but when that proved unprofitable, it was converted in 1981 to run on molasses, and then in 1987, on grain. Bankruptcy followed. The plant's product, ethanol, which can be blended with gasoline to power cars and trucks or used on its own to power modified vehicles, has been produced around the country for years using corn and wheat and other high-quality, high-cost ingredients, but never with economic success. But the new owners of the plant here, BC International Corporation, with a subsidy from the United States Energy Department and help from a genetically engineered, patented type of bacteria, hope they are on the cusp of a new era. ''It is a bio-refinery,'' said Stephen J. Gatto, president and chief executive of the company. Exactly 25 years after the beginning of the Arab oil embargo, the Energy Department believes that Mr. Gatto's company may have a way to replace crude oil with garbage. BC International will be the first to try on a commercial scale.

Abstract  Comparative immunotoxicity testing was conducted on evaporative emissions of gasoline alone, and gasoline plus ether or alcohol oxygenates in the Sprague-Dawley rat. The inhalation exposures simulate, at much higher exposures and durations, human exposures during self-serve refueling of automobiles. Seven vapor condensates of gasoline alone, or gasoline plus an ether or alcohol oxygenate were evaluated for effects on the humoral component of the immune system using antibody-forming cell (AFC) response to the T-dependent antigen, sheep erythrocyte. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to the test agents (2000, 10000 and 20000 mg/m3) by inhalation for 4 weeks (6 hrs/day, 5 days/week). Vapor condensates of gasoline alone, gasoline plus MTBE, tert-butyl alcohol (TBA), or tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) did not affect humoral response in the plaque assay. Vapor condensates of gasoline plus ethanol or diisopropyl ether (DIPE) did result in statistically significant decreases in the AFC response when evaluated as either AFC/106 spleen cells or AFC/spleen at the highest dose level. Gasoline plus ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) produced a statistically significant dose-dependent decrease in AFC response at the mid- and high-doses. Recently, there has been speculation in the literature that some immune effects are related, or secondary to concurrent neurotoxicity. Comparative neurotoxicity studies (functional observational battery and motor activity) at the same dose levels with these three test materials were negative, suggesting no relationship between immune and nervous system effects. The neat oxygenates (MTBE, TBA, TAME, ethanol, ETBE, DIPE) tested in these gasoline blends share a number of common metabolites (isopropyl alcohol; acetaldehyde, acetate). Although these studies were not definitive, the negative effects for gasoline alone, gasoline/MTBE, gasoline/TBA and gasoline/TAME suggest that neither gasoline components nor the common metabolites of the neat oxygenates are responsible for the positive effects observed for these mixtures.

Abstract  The production and use of bio-fuels in Europe has been developing more seriously only just the past five to ten years. Bio-fuels are an important technology for reducing the CO2 emission in transport. For fuels produced from biomass, various conversion routes are available that follow from the different types of biomass feedstock's. Although insights on technological and cost developments and the expected commercial availability of these bio-fuels are changing continuously, it can be stated that these bio-fuels will probably not be produced and applied on a commercial scale before 2010. Currently, only ethanol, (and its derivative ETBE) are applied on a commercial basis on the European market. They will remain the dominant bio-fuels in the coming decade, as alternative bio-fuel technologies are still in the development stage. At present, the biofuel producing countries in the European Union only have a small share in global production of bio-fuels, (<6%). The main ethanol producers are the USA and Brazil. However, Europe is the most important producer of bio-diesel on the global market. Although the importance of the use of bio-fuels in transport has already been stressed in the EU White Paper on renewable sources of energy (1997) and the Green Paper on a European strategy for the security of energy supply (2000), this has not led to the development of concrete bio-fuel specific national policies in many EU Member States.

Abstract  Purpose: Ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) is a biofuel for vehicles. ETBE is low toxicity and its NOAEL was 500ppm calculated from earlier animal experiments. In our previous study with Aldh2 knockout mice, we found that ETBE could induce damages in chromosomes and reproductive system even at 500 ppm. The present study was aimed at clarifying if ETBE has any effect on reproductive and other systems in mice at lower concentrations. Methods: Male C57BL/6 strain (WT), Aldh2+/− (HT) and Aldh2−/− (KO) at 8 weeks were exposed to ETBE at 0, 50, 200 and 500 ppm, 6 h/day and 5 days/week, for 9 weeks. Blood, testes, epididymides and vasa deferentia were sampled 20 h after the last exposure. Sperm from the cauda epididymis and vas deferens were released into a medium, and sperm motion was analyzed. Results: There was no effect of ETBE exposure on the ratio of testes or epididymides to the body weight in any genotype of mice. In WT mice, ETBE exposure did not affect the motility of sperm. In HTmice, there was a significant decrease in the motile percentage and some velocity parameters in 200 and 500ppm ETBE exposure groups. In KO mice, the effect was only detected in the highest ETBE exposure group. Conclusion: These results suggest that ETBE may show sperm toxicity at low concentrations, especially in subjects lacking enzyme activity of ALDH2 enzyme.

Abstract  In compliance with the Clean Air Act Section 211(b) for fuel and fuel additive registration, the petroleum industry has conducted comparative toxicology testing of evaporative emissions of seven vapor condensates of gasoline (GVC), or gasoline+ether [methyl tertiary butyl ether (G/MTBE), ethyl t-butyl ether (G/ETBE), t-amyl methyl ether (G/TAME), diisopropyl ether (G/DIPE)], or alcohol [ethanol (G/EtOH), t-butyl (G/TBA)] oxygenates. Here we present results of a 13-week inhalation study. Results of satellite studies evaluating genetic toxicity, GFAP and immunotoxicity are addressed in accompanying abstracts. Sprague- Dawley rats were exposed to target concentrations of 0, 2000, 10000, or 20000mg/m3 of each test material, 6 hr/day, 5d/wk for 13 wks. Air-control and 20000mg/m3 groups contained 20 rats/sex; 10/sex terminated at wk 13; 10/sex maintained for 4wk untreated recovery. Other groups contained 10 rats/sex. At wk 13 necropsy, 5 rats/sex/group were transcordally perfused and nervous system tissues prepared for neuropathology; all other rats were prepared for routine microscopy. Body wt gain and food consumption were comparable to concurrent controls for all test materials except at the high dose of G/EtOH (both sexes) and G/ETBE (males only) where decreased gain was seen during exposure but was resolved in recovery rats. Neurobehavioral test results (motor activity [MA], functional observational battery [FOB]) were comparable to controls for all test materials except for G/TBA where dose-related trends in MA and grip strength were observed during exposure but were not seen in recovery rats. Neuropathology was negative in all animals. Increased kidney wt and light hydrocarbon nephropathy (LHN) were observed in treated male rats in all studies. Effects were reversible or nearly reversible after 4wk recovery. LHN is unique to male rats and is not relevant to human toxicity. Results of these studies will be used for comparative risk assessment of gasoline and gasoline/oxygenate blends.

Abstract  All companies are going to be hit with huge capital costs; some estimates run to $50 billion for the industry in this decade. That would come, on average, to more than $3,000 per barrel of daily refining capacity. For older refineries the cost will be still higher. "If you're a weak company and cannot afford the capital required, it's a bad time," Mr. Hermes said. "If you're a strong company, it's a good time to be in it." The reason, he said, is that as refining capacity disappears, prices for refined products will rise. The oversupply could get worse, because the Clean Air Act gives the states the authority to "opt in," or voluntarily put themselves under the oxygenate rules. Mr. [John H. Lichtblau] estimated that by the end of the decade, half to two-thirds of the supply would have to be oxygenated, implying still more growth. Opting in, Mr. Lichtblau said, is "politically correct, environmentally correct, saying that the strictest standards are the best ones for the population in my area." Cost-Effectiveness Cited There is no indication where the trend to tighter regulation will end. "You will see no new capacity put in the United States," said J. Robinson West, president of the Petroleum Finance Company, , a consulting firm in Washington, "and certainly the marginal operations will be shaken out. The question is whether those facilities that are upgraded and survive will then operate at high margins or whether there will be increased regulations and they will never be profitable. There's absolutely nothing to say that this is the last round."

Abstract  So in the 1970's, the refiners were ordered to take out the lead. But that created a different pollution problem because the content of smog-causing aromatics was then increased to maintain high octane levels, ''The aromatic level was 20 percent of the gasoline, and the average is now over 30 percent,'' noted P. Whitney Forsburgh, an aide to Senator Thomas A. Daschle, Democrat of South Dakota, who is the author of the pending amendment to the Clean Air Act that would dictate several changes in gasoline. ''Super-unleadeds are more than 50 percent aromatics.'' At the moment, the term ''reformulated'' at the gasoline pump is akin to the term ''all natural'' in the supermarket: It helps sell the product, but has no precise meaning. Most oil companies that have cut the level of aromatic compounds have done so by breaking them into smaller molecules. But that generally requires adding something else to maintain octane. ''We can't really figure out what the recipe is going to be for the fuel,'' Mr. [Herbert W. Bruch] of the refiners' association said. ''It's a moving target.''