Abstract  Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels made from plant matter and residues, such as agricultural crops, municipal wastes and agricultural and forestry by-products. The term biofuels can refer to fuels for direct combustion for electricity production, but is generally used for liquid fuels for transportation. Biofuels are made from biomass through biochemical or thermochemical processes. Currently much attention is fo cused on utilization of ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, biocrude, and methane as biofuels. The European Union is on the third rank of biofuel production world wide, behind Brazil and the United States. In Europe, Germany is the largest, and France the second largest producer of biofuels. Most biofuels in commercial production in Europe today are based on sugar beet, wheat and rapeseed, which are converted to bioethanol/ETBE and biodiesel. The European Commission has set as a goal that by the end of 2005, 2% of the energy used in transportation shall be biofuels. The use of biofuels is then to grow by 0.75% annually. The ambition is to have 5.75% biofuels in transportation by 2010.

Abstract  Since becoming a confidant of former Vice President Hubert Humphrey more than 40 years ago, [Dwayne O. Andreas] has assiduously cultivated his political connections among Democrats and Republicans alike. ''The only people who have carried any weight,'' Andreas says, ''are the ones who deal with both sides.'' He has another rule for businessmen, based, he says, upon advice Humphrey gave him: ''Never suggest anything to a politician. They're scared to death they'll be caught doing something.'' Dwayne Andreas became C.E.O. in 1970 and, with his brother, transformed A.D.M. into one of the world's largest soybean processors and flour millers, currently with 117 processing plants; subsidiaries in Europe and Canada; a shipping company and a commodity brokerage firm. ([Lowell] retired more than 10 years ago, but Dwayne's son, Michael, and his nephew, Martin, are now executives in the company.) Dwayne Andreas sees the Government's tax credits for farm products as a quid pro quo. ''We endeavor to be on the Government's wavelength to see what they want done,'' he explains. ''Some years they want more soybeans. Some years they want to do something big in China. Who can do it for them? We're in 50 countries. We can do anything.'' For his part, Andreas says he will not lose any sleep if A.D.M.'s ethanol plants simply shut down. After 12 years in the business, he insists that A.D.M. has made less than a 6 percent return on its investment - ''less than all our other divisions'' - and that ethanol represents less than 10 percent of A.D.M.'s business. ''If they cancel ethanol,'' he says, ''do you think I'm worrying?''

Abstract  Governmental tax incentives and an EC target requiring that 5% of fuel consumed by the French transport sector be derived from renewable energy by 2005 has accelerated liquid biofuel R&D in France. Research currently focuses on production of the ETBE derivative of bioethanol from sugar beet and wheat. Rapeseed methyl esters are being evaluated for use in diesel engines at different blends. As a result of preliminary tests, the government has authorized use of 5% rapeseed methyl ester in diesel fuel and domestic fuel.

Abstract  This article looks at the production and use in the world of biofuels, with special attention to Europe, France and Spain produce 1.2mn tonnes and 1.0mn tonnes respectively of ethanol to make the fuel additive ETBE. Production processes and ETBE plants currently existing in Europe are described, and the tax exemptions granted in European countries explained. ETBE can replace aromatic hydrocarbons in petrol. The EU Commission is interested in increasing the production of renewable raw materials. ETBE has a good chance of consolidating its market position.

Abstract  This report briefly informs about advantages and disadvantages of ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) as an additive to gasoline and about its biodegradability. This compound could substitute the most used tert-butyl methyl ether (MTBE), which has been repeatedly detected as a contaminant in groundwater, drinking water, rivers, air and snow. ETBE has similar properties to MTBE, but its manufacture is more expensive than that of MTBE. The main advantage of ETBE is its easier biodegradability compared with MTBE. The use of ETBE seems to involve no health risk; however, its properties and environmental consequences of its use must be checked

Abstract  Kinetic and mechanistic studies of the gas phase synthesis of MTBE and ETBE have been carried out on the triflic acid bearing Y-zeolite catalysts. Addition of water to the feed shows great advantages: the formation of by-product diisobutene and of the hydrocarbons resulting from subsequent dehydration/cracking of the other by-product dialkylether, is significantly reduced. However, the MTBE or ETBE yield remains practically unchanged.

Abstract  In compliance with the Clean Air Act Section 211(b) for fuel and fuel additive registration, the petroleum industry has conducted a series of comparative multi-endpoint studies of evaporative fractions of seven vapor condensates of gasoline (GVC), or gasoline+ether [methyl t- butyl ether (G/MTBE), ethyl t-butyl ether (G/ETBE), t-amyl methyl ether (G/TAME), diisopropyl ether (G/DIPE)], or alcohol [ethanol (G/EtOH), t-butyl (G/TBA)] oxygenates. Here we present results from micronucleus (MN) and sister chromatid exchange (SCE) tests. Sprague- Dawley rats (5/sex/group used for both studies) were exposed to target concentrations of 0, 2000, 10000, or 20000mg/m3 of each test material, 6 hr/day, 5d/wk for 4 weeks. Positive control groups (5 rats/sex/group) were used for each study; rats were given cyclophosphamide IP, 24hr prior to sacrifice at doses of 5mg/kg for the SCE study and 40mg/kg for the MN study. At treatment end, blood was collected from the abdominal aorta for the SCE test [cultures established within 24 hr of collection], and femurs removed for the MN test. Femoral bone marrow was prepared and stained using a modified Feulgen method. Approx. 21hr after initiation of culture, cells were exposed to 5ug/ml bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU); colcemid was given at 68hr of culture. Cells were harvested after 72hr in culture and processed for SCE evaluation. No significant increased incidence of micronuclei in polychromatic erythrocytes was observed for any test material. Statistically significant increases in SCE over several doses were observed in rats given GVC alone or G/MTBE; females appeared more sensitive than males. G/TAME induced increased SCE in both sexes at the highest dose only. Although several instances of increased SCE were observed in cultured lymphocytes, gasoline and gasoline/oxygenate blends did not induce cytogenetic effects in bone marrow of exposed animals. Results of these studies will be used for comparative risk assessment of gasoline and gasoline/oxygenate blends.

Abstract  Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), a fuel oxygenate, is added to gasoline to improve combustion and reduce automobile emissions. Studies assessing ETBE respiratory effects are limited. Analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and nasal lavage fluid (NLF) are sensitive tools in assessing suspected respiratory toxicants. In this study, rats were exposed to ETBE (500 and 250 ppm for 6 hours) and sacrificed both immediately and 24 hours following exposure. Significant increases in sialic acid (SA) (93%) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (162%) were seen in NLF of rats sacrificed 24 hours post-exposure to 500 ppm ETBE. Significant increases were observed in protein content (101% and 174%) and acid phosphatase (ACP) (31% and 117%) at 0 and 24 h post exposure in NLF, respectively. There were significant increases in LDH activity (98%), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) (149%), and ACP (86%) at 24 h post-exposure in BALF following a 500 ppm exposure. Following exposure to 250 ppm, there were significant increases in SA (46%), LDH (78%), and ACP (89%) 24 h post-exposure in NLF. ETBE is metabolized to acetaldehyde, a known respiratory irritant and free radical inducer. In vitro incubation with acetaldehyde (0.1mM -1mM) with liver, lung, and nasal mucosa microsomes was investigated in a reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay. Acetaldehyde addition produced dose-dependent increases in ROS formation in hepatic, pulmonary, and nasal microsomes (maximal values of 153%, 154%, and 217% for each organ system, respectively). Following an in vivo exposure to ETBE, there was a significant increase in ROS formation in lung microsomes (172% at 500 ppm) and nasal mucosa microsomes (181% and 140 % at 500 and 250 ppm, respectively) immediately following exposure. Biochemical changes in lavage fluid parameters indicate that ETBE is a respiratory toxicant. A possible mechanism of toxicity may be bioactivation of ETBE in target organs and subsequent formation of ROS.

Abstract  In compliance with the Clean Air Act Section 211b for fuel and fuel additive registration, the petroleum industry and oxygenate manufacturers conducted comparative toxicology testing on evaporative emissions of gasoline alone and gasoline containing ether or alcohol oxygenates. Seven vapor condensates of gasoline (GVC), or gasoline-ether [MTBE (G/MTBE), ethyl t-butyl ether (G/ETBE), t-amyl methyl ether (G/TAME), diisopropyl ether (G/DIPE)], or alcohol [ethanol (G/EtOH), tbutyl alcohol (G/TBA)] were evaluated for reproductive toxicity in Sprague- Dawley rats. G/ETBE, G/TAME, G/DIPE, G/EtOH, and G/TBA were assessed for one-generation; GVC and G/MTBE were assessed over two generations. Additionally, GVC and G/MTBE offspring were evaluated for quantitative changes in regional brain glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) content. All inhalation exposures were 6 h/d, 7 d/w, at levels of 2000 - 20, 000 mg/m3. All exposures increased male kidney weight consistent with light hydrocarbon nephropathy. In adult rats, frequent findings across exposure groups included decreased body weight gain and increased liver weight, most commonly in males. Spleen weight decreased with G/TBA. G/EtOH and G/TBA exposure resulted in higher prostate weight, but no pathological changes occurred to reproductive organs in any study. Except for decreased food consumption during lactation (G/TAME) and a minor increase in time to mating (G/TBA), there were no reproductive findings. Offspring effects included reduced weight gain during lactation (G/TAME) and decreased spleen weight (G/TBA). Results of these studies will be used for comparative risk assessments of gasoline and gasoline/oxygenate blends.

Abstract  ''If we don't get it, then we're not going to be cooperating around here on anything,'' the Republican leader, Bob Dole of Kansas, told reporters today. ''You can't just use the rules when they work in your favor,'' he said, adding that Mr. Dole was a master at using the rules to his party's advantage when Republicans controlled the Senate, from 1982 to 1986. ''What I'm afraid we have here is basically a free-for-all,'' said Senator David Pryor, an Arkansas Democrat who favors capital gains reduction but voted against the Republican plan in the Finance Committee in the hope that like-minded Democrats will come up with a better one. ''I don't see how we get around the need for 60 votes.'' He said a bidding war might emerge for votes, with special provisions offered to senators in return for votes. Pet Provision Included

Abstract  BACKGROUND: Modern societies depend on environmental sustainability and on new generations of individuals well-trained by environmental research and teaching institutions. In the past, significant contributions to the identification, assessment, and management of chemical stressors with legal consequences have been made.

MAIN FEATURES: Within this article, we intend to elucidate the merits and the emerging challenges of chemicals-related environmental sciences. The manuscript is supported by more than 70 professors and university academics of leading institutions in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and other countries in Europe, but addresses topics of global concern.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Many environmental problems of pollutants remain to be addresses, since new chemical compounds or classes of new compounds are continuously developed and brought to the market and sooner or later "emerge" in the environment. Further issues are the inclusion of transformation products and chemical mixtures in environmental risk assessment, the long-term presence of xenobiotics bound to soils and sediments, as well as an understanding of the ecological relevance of ecotoxicological end points. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES: We point out the need for a strong academic research and education system in chemicals-related environmental sciences to ministries, politicians, and research funding institutions and we propose to create specific units in the national funding bodies that address basic and interdisciplinary research in this field.

Abstract  NA

Abstract  In compliance with the Clean Air Act Section 211b for fuel and fuel additive registration, the petroleum industry and oxygenate manufacturers have conducted comparative toxicology testing of evaporative emissions of gasoline alone, and gasoline plus ether and alcohol oxygenates. Here we present results from the immunotoxicity component of this program. The antibody-forming cell (AFC) response to the T-dependent antigen, sheep erythrocyte (sRBC), was used to determine the affects of the gasoline vapor condensates on the humoral immune component of the immune system. Seven vapor condensates of gasoline (GVC) or gasoline + an ether [MTBE (G/MTBE), ethyl t-butyl ether (G/ETBE), t-amyl methyl ether (G/TAME), diisopropyl ether (G/DIPE)] or an alcohol [ethanol (G/EtOH), tbutyl alcohol (G/TBA)] oxygenates were evaluated. Female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to the test agents (2, 000, 10, 000 and 20, 000 mg/m3) by inhalation for 4 weeks (6 hrs/day, 5 days/week). Animals were immunized with sRBC four days prior to sacrifice. Spleens were removed the day after the last exposure and were shipped overnight express to ImmunoTox, Inc. where the plaque assays were conducted. Exposure to GVC, G/MTBE, G/TAME, and G/TBA did not result in significant changes in the IgM AFC response to sRBC, when evaluated as either specific activity (AFC/106 spleen cells) or as total spleen activity (AFC/spleen). However, exposure to G/EtOH and G/DIPE resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in the AFC response when evaluated as either AFC/106 spleen cells or AFC/spleen. The decrease, ranging from 63-86% reached the level of statistical significance at the high (20, 000 mg/m3) exposure level. Exposure to G/ETBE resulted in a statistically significant decrease in the AFC response when evaluated as either AFC/106 spleen cells or AFC/spleen, which reached the level of statistical significance at the middle (10, 000 mg/m3) and high (20, 000 mg/m3) exposure levels, ranging from 70-76%. Results of these studies will be used for comparative risk assessments of gasoline and gasoline/oxygenate blends.

Abstract  This article describes three future scenarios for the potential reduction of CO2 emissions and associated costs when biogenic ethanol blends and oxygenates are substituted for gasoline, and hybrid, flex fuel and fuel cell technologies are introduced in passenger automobiles (including pickups and sport-utility vehicles (SUVs)) in the densely populated Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA), analyzed up to the year 2030. A reference (REF) scenario is constructed in which most automobiles are driven by internal combustion engines (ICE) fuelled by gasoline. In the first alternative scenario (ALT1), hybrid electric-ICE gasoline-fuelled cars are introduced in 2006. In the same year, ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) is introduced as a replacement for methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) oxygenate for gasoline. In the second alternative scenario (ALT2), in addition to the changes introduced in ALT1, flex fuel ICE technology fuelled by E85 is introduced in 2008 and electric motor vehicles driven by direct ethanol fuel cells (DEFC) fuelled by E100 in 2013. A comparison between the reference and alternate scenarios shows that while the total number of vehicles is the same in each scenario, energy consumption decreases by 9% (ALT1) and 17% (ALT2), the total non-biogenic CO2 emissions drop by 15% (ALT1) and 34% (ALT2), CO2 mitigation cost is 140.14 $US1997/ton CO2 (ALT2), and ALT1 has savings and is considered a 'no regrets' scenario.

Abstract  MTBE and ETBE, gasoline oxygenates, are recalcitrant compounds capable of withstanding microbial and chemical attack. These compounds are also substantial contaminants of groundwater, surface water, and atmosphere. A new remedial treatment system utilizing peroxy-acid action has been investigated. The peroxy-acid is formed between an organic acid and hydrogen peroxide. The resultant hydroxyl radical acts upon the compound of interest. While other advanced oxidation processes have not yielded significant pollutant degradation, Peroxy-acids have been shown to act upon recalcitrant compounds in a timely manner. The process makes the pollutant more bioavailaole Whilst concurrently causing degradation. In a time course study, MTBE concentrations decreased 30% and new products were formed. In ongoing and future work, we will

Abstract  Major air quality improvements in urban areas can be achieved by changing fuels. Under the Clean Air Act of 1990, areas that do not attain national air quality standards for carbon monoxide were required to use oxygenated gasoline during the winter months. EPA claims the program resulted in a 95% drop in the number of days CO levels exceeded standards in those areas. Oxygenated and reformulated gas are expected to reduce ozone-forming hydrocarbons, through the use of such additives as methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), ethyl tertiary-butyl ether (ETBE) and ethanol. Oil companies prefer MTBE and ETBE over ethanol but sporadic consumer complaints about health problems and studies pointing to MTBE as a carcinogen have cast doubt on its acceptability.

Abstract  The study was prepared by a California consulting firm that has done extensive work for the governments of eight Northeastern states and California. It concludes that ''gasohol,'' or gasoline with 10 percent grain alcohol, would cut carbon monoxide by 25 percent, but that nitrogen oxides, which cause smog and acid rain, would rise by 8 to 15 percent, and hydrocarbons would rise by 50 percent. That works out to 6 percent more smog. Technical analysts are equivocal when it comes to the benefits of ethanol. ''The jury is still out,'' said Jerry Martin, a spokesman for the California board. ''We do know that there seems to be a reduction in carbon monoxide, but there seems to be some slight increase in nitrogen oxide. We have not determined as of yet which is the greater. We still are not certain whether there's a benefit or not.'' At the E.P.A., Richard D. Wilson, director of the Office of Mobile Sources, said the Senate proposal would improve air quality because it also calls for a 15 percent reduction in ozone, with no increase in nitrogen oxides. One way it would achieve this, Mr. Wilson said, is by cutting another component of gasoline called aromatics, heavy molecules that sometimes fail to burn completely. Another official at the California board, Thomas A. Cackette, said that ''if alcohol is used the way it is used today, the only conclusion you can have is that it hurts air quality.'' But he agreed with Mr. Wilson that the Senate plan would require other changes that would help air quality.

Abstract  Fuel oxygenates, as mandated by amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1990, are blended with gasoline to help reduce harmful vehicle exhaust emissions. To date, methyl-tert butyl ether (MTBE) is the most common oxygenate employed to produce cleaner burning fuels. TAME, as well as ethyl-tert butyl ether and diisopropyl ether, are less commonly used oxygenates; but with the recent launch of the MTBE phase-out program due to health concerns, the demand for TAME may increase. The full impact of TAME on human health, however, is yet to be determined. The aim of this study was to examine the alterations in CYP450 activities in rat nasal mucosa, lung and liver immediately following, and 24 h after, an acute 6 h inhalation exposure to TAME. CYP450 activity was measured in microsomes using specific enzyme probes. TAME (100ppm, 0 h or 24 h) exposure resulted in inhibition of CYP1A1 (69% and 53%), CYP1A2 (96% and 65%), CYP2A3 (89% and 41%), CYP2B1 (44% and 79%), CYP3A (28% and 21%) and CYP4B1 (36% and 23%) in nasal mucosa. Exposure to 300ppm (0 h or 24 h) inhibited nasal mucosal CYP1A1 (79% and 45%), CYP1A2 (80% and 61%), CYP2A3 (84% and 49%), and CYP2B1 (83% and 70%). CYP4B1 was inhibited 27% at 24 h only. In lung, TAME (100ppm or 300ppm) inhibited CYP2A3 (31% and 88%) and CYP2B1 (36% and 22%) at 0 h with recovery to control levels at 24 h. Lung CYP4B1 activity increased 23% immediately following the 300ppm exposure but was subsequently inhibited by 26% at 24 h post-exposure. Hepatic CYP2B1 activity increased at 0 h (87%) and 24 h (207%) following the 300ppm exposure. CYP1A1 activity increased (44%) 24 h following 300ppm only. TAME (100ppm) inhibited CYP3A (16%) at 0 h whereas inhibition of CYP2A3 (27%) and an increase in CYP2E1 activity (19%) occurred 24 h post-exposure in liver. These alterations in CYP450 activity following TAME exposure may lead to adverse human health outcomes upon co-exposure with other agents, such as other solvents in gasoline, by increasing bioactivation and/or delaying detoxication via this system.