Abstract  This paper aims to advance regional worldwide source receptor relationships, providing fate factors for acidifying and eutrophying air emissions (NOx, HNO3, SO2, SO4 and NH3) to be used within life cycle impact assessment. A simulation for the reference year 2005 of the three-dimensional global scale tropospheric GEOS-Chem model was used as the basis of a novel methodological approach to derive source receptor matrices (SRMs) whose elements are fate factors at a global 2 degrees x 2.5 degrees grid. This new approach makes it possible to assess the impact of transboundary emissions while maintaining regional scale emission differentiation. These 2 degrees x 2.5 degrees grid resolution fate factors were later aggregated at continental and country resolutions using emission weighting. Continental fate factor results showed that 50-70% of nitrogen oxides (NOx, HNO3) and sulfur oxides (SO2, SO4) and approximately 80% of ammonia (NH3) emissions will deposit on the same continent. Results showed that the developed fate factor derivation approach was within a +/-10% agreement with GEOS-Chem simulations in which fate factors were determined by withdrawing the regional emission inventory over Canada and in +/-50% agreement with current state-of-the-art LCIA fate factors (calculated with the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) model). The SRMs outlined in this paper facilitate further modeling developments without having to run the underlying tropospheric model, thus opening the door to the assessment of the regional life cycle inventories of a global economy. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract  Ozonolysis is a major tropospheric removal mechanism for unsaturated hydrocarbons and proceeds via "Criegee intermediates"--carbonyl oxides--that play a key role in tropospheric oxidation models. However, until recently no gas-phase Criegee intermediate had been observed, and indirect determinations of their reaction kinetics gave derived rate coefficients spanning orders of magnitude. Here, we report direct photoionization mass spectrometric detection of formaldehyde oxide (CH(2)OO) as a product of the reaction of CH(2)I with O(2). This reaction enabled direct laboratory determinations of CH(2)OO kinetics. Upper limits were extracted for reaction rate coefficients with NO and H(2)O. The CH(2)OO reactions with SO(2) and NO(2) proved unexpectedly rapid and imply a substantially greater role of carbonyl oxides in models of tropospheric sulfate and nitrate chemistry than previously assumed.

Abstract  This study investigates the biogeochemical processes that control the benthic fluxes of dissolved nitrogen (N) species in Boknis Eck - a 28 m deep site in the Eckernforde Bay (southwestern Baltic Sea). Bottom water oxygen concentrations (O(2-BW)) fluctuate greatly over the year at Boknis Eck, being well-oxygenated in winter and experiencing severe bottom water hypoxia and even anoxia in late summer. The present communication addresses the winter situation (February 2010). Fluxes of ammonium (NH(4)(+)), nitrate (NO(3)(-)) and nitrite (NO(2)(-)) were simulated using a benthic model that accounted for transport and biogeochemical reactions and constrained with ex situ flux measurements and sediment geochemical analysis. The sediments were a net sink for NO(3)(-) (-0.35 mmol m(-2) d(-1) of NO(3)(-)), of which 75% was ascribed to dissimilatory reduction of nitrate to ammonium (DNRA) by sulfide oxidizing bacteria, and 25% to NO(3)(-) reduction to NO(2)(-) by denitrifying microorganisms. NH(4)(+) fluxes were high (1.74 mmol m(-2) d(-1) of NH(4)(+)), mainly due to the degradation of organic nitrogen, and directed out of the sediment. NO fluxes were negligible. The sediments in Boknis Eck are, therefore, a net source of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN = NO(3)(-) + NO(2)(-) + NH(4)(+)) during winter. This is in large part due to bioirrigation, which accounts for 76% of the benthic efflux of NH(4)(+), thus reducing the capacity for nitrification of NH(4)(+). The combined rate of fixed N loss by denitrification and anammox was estimated at 0.08 mmol m(-2) d(-1) of N(2), which is at the lower end of previously reported values. A systematic sensitivity analysis revealed that denitrification and anammox respond strongly and positively to the concentration of NO(3)(-) in the bottom water (NO(3BW)(-)). Higher O(2-BW) decreases DNRA and denitrification but stimulates both anammox and the contribution of anammox to total N(2) production (%R(amx)). A complete mechanistic explanation of these findings is provided. Our analysis indicates that nitrification is the geochemical driving force behind the observed correlation between %R(amx) and water depth in the seminal study of Dalsgaard et al. (2005). Despite remaining uncertainties, the results provide a general mechanistic framework for interpreting the existing knowledge of N-turnover processes and fluxes in continental margin sediments, as well as predicting the types of environment where these reactions are expected to occur prominently.

Abstract  We conducted field Studies to determine the levels of acid and aluminum (Al) that affect survival, smolt development, ion homeostasis, and stress in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts in restoration streams of the Connecticut River in southern Vermont. USA. Fish were held in cages in five streams encompassing a wide range of acid and At levels for two 6-day intervals during the peak of smolt development in late April and early May. Physiological parameters were unchanged from initial sampling at the hatchery and the high water quality reference site (pH > 7.0, inorganic At < 12 mu g.L-1). Mortality, substantial loss of plasma chloride, and gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity, and elevated gill At Occurred at sites with the lowest pH (5.4-5.6) and highest inorganic Al (50-80 mu g.L-1). Moderate loss of plasma chloride, increased plasma cortisol and glucose, and moderately elevated gill Al occurred at less severely impacted sites. Gill Al was a better predictor of integrated physiological impacts than water chemistry alone. The results indicate that At and low pH under field conditions in some New England streams can cause mortality and impair smolt development in juvenile Atlantic salmon and provide direct evidence that episodic acidification is impacting conservation and recovery of Atlantic salmon in the northeastern USA.

Abstract  1. We analysed a large number of concurrent samples of macroinvertebrate communities and chemical indicators of eutrophication and organic pollution [total-P, total-N, NH(4)-N, biological oxygen demand (BOD(5))] from 594 Danish stream sites. Samples were taken over an 11-year time span as part of the Danish monitoring programme on the aquatic environment. Macroinvertebrate communities were sampled in spring using a standardised kick-sampling procedure whereas chemical variables were sampled six to 24 times per year per site. Habitat variables were assessed once when macroinvertebrates were sampled. The plecopteran Leuctra showed a significant negative exponential relationship (r2 = 0.90) with BOD(5) and occurred at only 16% of the sites with BOD(5) above 1.6 mg L-1. Sharp declines with increasing BOD(5) levels were found for the trichopteran families Sericostomatidae and Glossosomatidae although they appeared to be slightly less sensitive than Leuctra. Other plecopterans such as Isoperla showed a similar type of response curve to Leuctra (negative exponential) but occurred at sites with relatively high concentrations of BOD(5) up to 3-4 mg L-1. In contrast, the response curve of the isopod Asellus aquaticus followed a saturation function reaching a plateau above 3-4 mg L-1 BOD(5) and the dipteran Chironomus showed an exponential increase in occurrence with increasing BOD(5) concentration. Macroinvertebrate occurrence appeared to be related primarily to concentrations of BOD(5), NH(4)-N and total-P whereas there were almost no relationships to total-N. Occurrence of a number of taxa showed a stronger relationship to habitat conditions (width and substrate) than chemical variables. Important macroinvertebrate taxa are reduced at concentrations of BOD(5) that are normally perceived as indicating unimpacted stream site conditions. Our results confirmed sensitivity/tolerance patterns used by existing bioassessment systems only to some degree.

Abstract  The Mediterranean climate, with its characteristic of dry summers and wet winters, influences the hydrologic and microbial processes that control carbon ( C) and nitrogen (N) biogeochemical processes in chaparral ecosystems. These biogeochemical processes in turn determine N cycling under chronic N deposition. In order to examine connections between climate and N dynamics, we quantified decadal-scale water, C and N states and fluxes at annual, monthly and daily time steps for a California chaparral ecosystem in the Sierra Nevada using the DAYCENT model. The daily output simulations of net mineralization, stream flow and stream nitrate (NO3-) export were developed for DAYCENT in order to simulate the N dynamics most appropriate for the abrupt rewetting events characteristic of Mediterranean chaparral ecosystems. Overall, the magnitude of annual modeled net N mineralization, soil and plant biomass C and N, nitrate export and gaseous N emission agreed with those of observations. Gaseous N emission was a major N loss pathway in chaparral ecosystems, in which nitric oxide ( NO) is the dominant species. The modeled C and N fluxes of net primary production (NPP), N uptake and N mineralization, NO3- export and gaseous N emission showed both high inter-annual and intraannual variability. Our simulations also showed dramatic fire effects on NPP, N uptake, N mineralization and gaseous N emission for three years of post. re. The decease in simulated soil organic C and N storages was not dramatic, but lasted a longer time. For the seasonal pattern, the predicted C and N. uxes were greatest during December to March, and lowest in the summer. The model predictions suggested that an increase in the N deposition rate would increase N losses through gaseous N emission and stream N export in the chaparral ecosystems of the Sierra Nevada due to changes in N saturation status. The model predictions could not capture stream NO3- export during most rewetting events suggesting that a dry-rewetting mechanism representing the increase in N mineralization following soil wetting needs to be incorporated into biogeochemical models of semi-arid ecosystems.

Abstract  Critical loads are widely used in the effects-based assessment of emission reduction policies. While the impacts of acidification have diminished, there is increasing concern regarding the effects of nitrogen deposition on terrestrial ecosystems. In this context much attention has been focussed on empirical critical loads as well as simulations with linked geochemistry-vegetation models. Surprisingly little attention has been paid to adapt the widely used simple mass balance approach. This approach has the well-established benefit of easy regional applicability, while incorporating specified critical chemical criteria to protect specified receptors. As plant occurrence/biodiversity is related to both the nutrient and acidity status of an ecosystem, a single abiotic factor (chemical criterion) is not sufficient. Rather than an upper limit for deposition (i.e., critical load), linked nutrient nitrogen and acidity chemical criteria for plant occurrence result in an 'optimal' nitrogen and sulphur deposition envelope.

Abstract  Long-term (1860-2010) catchment mass balance calculations rely on models and assumptions which are sources of uncertainty in acidification assessments. In this article, we report on an application of MAGIC to model acidification at the four Swedish IM forested catchments that have been subject to differing degrees of acidification stress. Uncertainties in the modeled mass balances were mainly associated with the deposition scenario and assumptions about sulfate adsorption and soil mass. Estimated base cation (BC) release rates (weathering) varied in a relatively narrow range of 47-62 or 42-47 meq m(-2) year(-1), depending on assumptions made about soil cation exchange capacity and base saturation. By varying aluminum solubility or introducing a dynamic weathering feedback that allowed BC release to increase at more acidic pHs, a systematic effect on predicted changes in acid neutralizing capacity (ΔANC ca. 10-41 μeq l(-1)) and pH (ca. ΔpH = 0.1-0.6) at all sites was observed. More robust projections of future changes in pH and ANC are dependent on reducing uncertainties in BC release rates, the timing, and extent of natural acidification through BC uptake by plants, temporal changes in soil element pools, and fluxes of Al between compartments.

Abstract  Calcium cycling plays a key role in the health and productivity of red spruce forests in the northeastern US. A portion of the flowpath of calcium within forests includes translocation as Ca2+ in sapwood and accumulation as crystals of calcium oxalate in foliage. Concentrations of Ca in these tree tissues have been used as markers of environmental change due to acidic deposition or forest management practices. We compared the effects of Ca fertilization treatment on Ca concentration in wood and Ca and oxalate (Ox concentration in foliage at two locations with different initial concentrations of Ca in the soil.We found greater amounts of Ca inwood from the high-Ca location than from the low-Ca location. Ca concentration was greater inwood formed in the 1970s than forwood formed in the 1980s, the outermost decadal band in these samples.

Abstract  Although the acid sensitivity of many invertebrate species in lakes is well known, methods for assessment of lake acidification based on macroinvertebrate samples are less developed than for rivers. This article analyses a number of existing metrics developed for assessment of river acidification, and evaluates their performance for assessment of lake acidification. Moreover, new species-based indicators of lake acidification were developed and tested. The selected dataset contains 668 samples on littoral macroinvertebrates from 427 lakes with almost 60% of the samples from Sweden and the rest from UK and Norway. Flexible, non-parametric regression models were used for explorative analyses of the pressure–response relationships. The metrics have been assessed according to their response to pH, the degree of non-linearity of the response and the influence of humic compounds. Acid-sensitive metrics often showed a threshold in response to pH between 5.8 and 6.5. Highly acid-tolerant metrics were typically dominant across the whole pH range. Humic level had a positive effect for most acid-sensitive metrics. Generally, most metrics showed a more non-linear response pattern for the humic lakes than for clear lakes. The significant relationship between these macroinvertebrate metrics and acidification shows that there is a potential for developing further the assessment systems for ecological quality of lakes based on these metrics, although the metrics explained a low % of the variation (<30%). In order to improve the predictive power of the biotic metrics across the acidified part of Europe, further harmonization and standardisation of sampling effort and taxa identification are needed.

Abstract  A re-survey of acid-sensitive lakes in Ireland (initial survey 1997) was carried out during spring 2007 (n = 60). Since 1997, atmospheric emissions of sulfur dioxide and deposition of non-marine sulfate (SO(4) (2-)) in Ireland have decreased by ~63 and 36%, respectively. Comparison of water chemistry between surveys showed significant decreases in the concentration of SO(4) (2-), non-marine SO(4) (2-), and non-marine base cations. In concert, alkalinity increased significantly; however, no change was observed in surface water pH and total aluminum. High inter-annual variability in sea salt inputs and increasing (albeit non-significant) dissolved organic carbon may have influenced the response of pH and total aluminum (as ~70% is organic aluminum). Despite their location on the western periphery of Europe, and dominant influence from Atlantic air masses, the repeat survey suggests that the chemistry of small Irish lakes has shown a significant response to reductions in air pollution driven primarily by the implementation of the Gothenburg Protocol under the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.

Abstract  North American atmospheric S emissions peaked in the early 1970s followed by a dramatic decrease that resulted in marked declines in sulfate (SO₄²⁻)) concentrations in precipitation and many surface waters. These changes in S biogeochemistry have important implications with respect to the mobilization of toxic (Al(n⁺), H⁺) and nutrient (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺) cations and the acidification of watersheds. We used the continuous long-term record for watersheds 1, 3, 5, and 6 (37-44 years from 1965 through 2008) of SO₄²⁻ concentrations and fluxes at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire (U.S.) for evaluating S budgets. Analysis revealed that the annual discrepancies in the watershed S budgets (SO₄²⁻ flux in drainage waters minus total atmospheric S deposition) have become significantly (p < 0.001) more negative, indicating the increasing importance of the release of S from internal sources with time. Watershed wetness, as a function of log₁₀ annual water flux, was highly significant (p < 0.001) and explained 57% (n = 157) of the annual variation for the combined results from watersheds 1, 3, 5, and 6. The biogeochemical control of annual SO₄²⁻ export in streamwater of forested watersheds has shifted from atmospheric S deposition to climatic factors by affecting soil moisture.

Abstract  Quarterly base flow water quality data collected from October, 1993 to November, 2002 at 90 stream sites in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park were used in step-wise multiple linear regression models to analyze pH, acid neutralizing capacity (ANC), and sulfate and nitrate long-term time trends. The potential predictor variables included cumulative Julian day, seasonality, elevation, basin slope, stream order, precipitation, surrogate streamflows, geology, and acid depositional fluxes. Modeling revealed statistically significant decreasing trends in pH and sulfate with time at lower elevations, but generally no long-term time trends in stream nitrate or ANC. The best forecasting models were chosen based on maximizing the r(2) of a holdout data set. If conditions remain the same and past trends continue, the forecasting models suggest that 30.0% of the sampling sites will reach pH values less than 6.0 in less than 10 years, 63.3% in less than 25 years, and 96.7% in less than 50 years. The pH forecasting models explain 65% of the variability in the holdout data.

Abstract  An important tool in the evaluation of acidification damage to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems is the critical load (CL), which represents the steady-state level of acidic deposition below which ecological damage would not be expected to occur, according to current scientific understanding. A deposition load intended to be protective of a specified resource condition at a particular point in time is generally called a target load (TL). The CL or TL for protection of aquatic biota is generally based on maintaining surface water acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) at an acceptable level. This study included calibration and application of the watershed model MAGIC (Model of Acidification of Groundwater in Catchments) to estimate the target sulfur (S) deposition load for the protection of aquatic resources at several future points in time in 66 generally acid-sensitive watersheds in the southern Blue Ridge province of North Carolina and two adjoining states. Potential future change in nitrogen leaching is not considered. Estimated TLs for S deposition ranged from zero (ecological objective not attainable by the specified point in time) to values many times greater than current S deposition depending on the selected site, ANC endpoint, and evaluation year. For some sites, one or more of the selected target ANC critical levels (0, 20, 50, 100 mu eq/L) could not be achieved by the year 2100 even if S deposition was reduced to zero and maintained at that level throughout the simulation. Many of these highly sensitive streams were simulated by the model to have had preindustrial ANC below some of these target values. For other sites, the watershed soils contained sufficiently large buffering capacity that even very high sustained levels of atmospheric S deposition would not reduce stream ANC below common damage thresholds. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract  Trends in precipitation chemistry and hydrologic and climatic data were examined as drivers of long-term changes in the chemical composition of high-elevation lakes in three wilderness areas in Colorado during 1985-2008. Sulfate concentrations in precipitation decreased at a rate of -0.15 to -0.55 mu eq/l/year at 10 high-elevation National Atmospheric Deposition Program stations in the state during 1987-2008 reflecting regional reductions in SO2 emissions. In lakes where sulfate is primarily derived from atmospheric inputs, sulfate concentrations also decreased although the rates generally were less, ranging from -0.12 to -0.27 mu eq/l/year. The similarity in timing and sulfur isotopic data support the hypothesis that decreases in atmospheric deposition are driving the response of high-elevation lakes in some areas of the state. By contrast, in lakes where sulfate is derived primarily from watershed weathering sources, sulfate concentrations showed sharp increases during 1985-2008. Analysis of long-term climate records indicates that annual air temperatures have increased between 0.45 and 0.93A degrees C per decade throughout most mountainous areas of Colorado, suggesting climate as a factor. Isotopic data reveal that sulfate in these lakes is largely derived from pyrite, which may indicate climate warming is preferentially affecting the rate of pyrite weathering.

Abstract  Our previous investigation found elevated nitrogen deposition caused declines in abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) associated with forest trees, but little is known about how nitrogen affects the AMF community composition and structure within forest ecosystems. We hypothesized that N deposition would lead to significant changes in the AMF community structure. We studied the diversity and community structure of AMF in northern hardwood forests after more than 12 years of simulated nitrogen deposition. We performed molecular analyses on maple (Acer spp.) roots targeting the 18S rDNA region using the fungal-specific primers AM1 and NS31. PCR products were cloned and identified using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and sequencing. N addition significantly altered the AMF community structure, and Glomus group A dominated the AMF community. Some Glomus operational taxonomic units (OTUs) responded negatively to N inputs, whereas other Glomus OTUs and an Acaulospora OTU responded positively to N inputs. The observed effect on community structure implies that AMF species associated with maples differ in their response to elevated nitrogen. Given that functional diversity exists among AMF species and that N deposition has been shown to select less beneficial fungi in some ecosystems, this change in community structure could have implications for the functioning of this type of ecosystem.

Abstract  Atmospheric deposition of reactive nitrogen (Nr) has enriched oligotrophic lakes with nitrogen (N) in many regions of the world and elicited dramatic changes in diatom community structure. The lakewater concentrations of nitrate that cause these community changes remain unclear, raising interest in the development of diatom-based transfer functions to infer nitrate. We developed a diatom calibration set using surface sediment samples from 46 high-elevation lakes across the Rocky Mountains of the western US, a region spanning an N deposition gradient from very low to moderate levels (<1 to 3.2 kg Nr ha−1 year−1 in wet deposition). Out of the fourteen measured environmental variables for these 46 lakes, ordination analysis identified that nitrate, specific conductance, total phosphorus, and hypolimnetic water temperature were related to diatom distributions. A transfer function was developed for nitrate and applied to a sedimentary diatom profile from Heart Lake in the central Rockies. The model coefficient of determination (bootstrapping validation) of 0.61 suggested potential for diatom-inferred reconstructions of lakewater nitrate concentrations over time, but a comparison of observed versus diatom-inferred nitrate values revealed the poor performance of this model at low nitrate concentrations. Resource physiology experiments revealed that nitrogen requirements of two key taxa were opposite to nitrate optima defined in the transfer function. Our data set reveals two underlying ecological constraints that impede the development of nitrate transfer functions in oligotrophic lakes: (1) even in lakes with nitrate concentrations below quantification (<1 μg L−1), diatom assemblages were already dominated by species indicative of moderate N enrichment; (2) N-limited oligotrophic lakes switch to P limitation after receiving only modest inputs of reactive N, shifting the controls on diatom species changes along the length of the nitrate gradient. These constraints suggest that quantitative inferences of nitrate from diatom assemblages will likely require experimental approaches.

Abstract  Atmospheric nitrogen deposition can cause major declines in bryophyte abundance yet the physiological basis for such declines is not fully understood. Bryophyte physiological responses may also be sensitive bioindicators of both the impacts of, and recovery from, N deposition. Here, responses of tissue nutrients (nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K): NPK), N and P metabolism enzymes (nitrate reductase and phosphomonoesterase), photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll fluorescence, sclerophylly and percentage cover of two common bryophytes (Pseudoscleropodium purum and Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus) to long-term (11 yr) enhanced N deposition (+3.5 and +14 g N m(-2) yr(-1)) are reported in factorial combination with P addition. Recovery of responses 22 months after treatment cessation were also assessed. Enhanced N deposition caused up to 90% loss of bryophyte cover but no recovery was observed. Phosphomonoesterase activity and tissue N:P ratios increased up to threefold in response to N loading and showed clear recovery, particularly in P. purum. Smaller responses and recovery were also seen in all chlorophyll fluorescence measurements and altered photosynthetic pigment composition. The P limitation of growth appears to be a key mechanism driving bryophyte loss along with damage to photosystem II. Physiological measurements are more sensitive than measurements of abundance as bioindicators of N deposition impact and of recovery in particular.

Abstract  Consideration of the impacts of pollutants on elements of biodiversity and the development of cost-effective biomonitoring tools to measure those impacts are essential to coastal biodiversity conservation. To examine the effects of nutrient enrichment and to develop biomonitoring tools, a network of 11 rocky intertidal sites differing in nutrient contamination levels was established on the west coast of Ireland. Communities of molluscs on the lower shore were sampled at the sites and a range of physicochemical variables was measured to characterize levels of contamination on the shores. Total abundance and number of taxa of molluscs were reduced in contaminated sites compared to control sites. Multivariate analyses showed that the structure of the molluscan assemblages differed between contaminated and control sites, discriminating between species that were more abundant at contaminated sites and those that were more abundant at control sites. Multivariate multiple regression analysis showed that nitrite, phosphate and ammonia levels in seawater accounted for more than 45% of the variability in the community structure of molluscs. This study suggests that molluscan assemblages could be a cost-effective tool to monitor and detect changes induced by nutrient enrichment in coastal areas.

Abstract  Almost all boreal and temperate forest tree species live in symbiosis with ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF); the trees transfer carbon (C) to the fungi in exchange for nutrients and water. Several studies have shown that experimental application of inorganic nitrogen (N) represses production of EMF extramatrical mycelia (EMM), but studies along N deposition gradients are underrepresented. Other environmental variables than N may influence EMM production and in this study we included 29 thoroughly monitored Norway spruce stands from a large geographical region in Sweden in order to evaluate the importance of N deposition on EMM growth and N leaching in a broader context. It was concluded that N deposition was the most important factor controlling EMM production and that the amounts typically deposited in boreal and boreo-nemoral regions can be sufficient to reduce EMM growth. Other factors, such as phosphorus status and pH, were also correlated with EMM production and should be considered when predicting EMM growth and N leaching. We also showed that EMM production substantially contributed to the C sequestration (320 kg ha−1 yr−1), suggesting that it should be included in C cycle modelling. Furthermore, EMF are probably important for the N retention capacity since high N leaching coincided with low EMM growth. However, it was not possible to differentiate between the effects of EMF and the direct effect of N deposition on N leaching in the present study.

Abstract  Nitrogen (N) deposition is expected to increase in northwestern Europe the next 50–100 years. The effects of higher N availability on lichens will presumably depend on their capacity to acquire carbon (C), that is, of the timing and duration of the wet and active state. If lichens respond like plants, their C and N status may affect their concentration of carbon-based secondary compounds (CBSCs), and thus their defence against herbivores, detrimental radiation, pathogens and parasites. In the present study we have manipulated N availability and timing and duration of the metabolically active state by spraying lichen transplants in an old spruce forest with rainwater or rainwater with added N corresponding to 50 kg N ha−1 yr−1. The spraying was applied either at night, in the morning or at noon to also investigate the effect of timing and duration of the active state. Concentrations of N, chlorophyll a (Chl a) and CBSCs were measured before and after one summer's spraying of 10 thalli in each of four different lichen species; Alectoria sarmentosa, Lobaria scrobiculata, Platismatia glauca, and Xanthoria aureola. The added N was readily taken up by all the lichen species. A. sarmentosa, P. glauca, and X. aureola increased their Chl a concentration in response to increased N, while L. scrobiculata increased Chl a in response to increased active time. None of the studied species reduced their concentration of secondary compounds during the experimental period, but in P. glauca the concentration of all compounds were significantly lower in N-treated thalli compared with those that got only rainwater. The results are consistent with a high degree of constitutive defence in three of four species, and we conclude that all the investigated lichens seem to have rather robust chemical defence systems despite considerable manipulation of the environmental conditions.

Abstract  The Bear Brook Watershed in Maine (BBWM), USA is a paired watershed study with chemical manipulation of one watershed (West Bear = WB) while the other watershed (East Bear = EB) serves as a reference. Characterization of hydrology and chemical fluxes occurred in 1987-1989 and demonstrated the similarity of the ca. 10 ha adjacent forested watersheds. From 1989-2010, we have added 1,800 eq (NH(4))(2)SO(4) ha(-1) y(-1) to WB. EB runoff has slowly acidified even as atmospheric deposition of SO4(-2) has declined. EB acidification included decreasing pH, base cation concentrations, and alkalinity, and increasing inorganic Al concentration, as SO4(-2) declined. Organic Al increased. WB has acidified more rapidly, including a 6-year period of increasing leaching of base cations, followed by a long-term decline of base cations, although still elevated over pretreatment values, as base saturation declined in the soils. Sulfate in WB has not increased to a new steady state because of increased anion adsorption accompanying soil acidification. Dissolved Al has increased dramatically in WB; increased export of particulate Al and P has accompanied the acidification in both watersheds, WB more than EB. Nitrogen retention in EB increased after 3 years of study, as did many watersheds in the northeastern USA. Nitrogen retention in WB still remains at over 80%, in spite of 20+ years of N addition. The 20-year chemical treatment with continuous measurements of critical variables in both watersheds has enabled the identification of decadal-scale processes, including ecosystem response to declining SO4(-2) in ambient precipitation in EB and evolving mechanisms of treatment response in WB. The study has demonstrated soil mechanisms buffering pH, declines in soil base saturation, altered P biogeochemistry, unexpected mechanisms of storage of S, and continuous high retention of treatment N.

Abstract  Episodic acidification resulting in increased acidity and inorganic aluminum (Al(i)) is known to interfere with the parr-smolt transformation of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), and has been implicated as a possible cause of population decline. To determine the extent and mechanism(s) by which short-term acid/Al exposure compromises smolt development, Atlantic salmon smolts were exposed to either control (pH 6.7-6.9) or acid/Al (pH 5.4-6.3, 28-64 microgl(-1) Al(i)) conditions for 2 and 5 days, and impacts on freshwater (FW) ion regulation, seawater (SW) tolerance, plasma hormone levels and stress response were examined. Gill Al concentrations were elevated in all smolts exposed to acid/Al relative to controls confirming exposure to increased Al(i). There was no effect of acid/Al on plasma ion concentrations in FW however, smolts exposed to acid/Al followed by a 24h SW challenge exhibited greater plasma Cl(-) levels than controls, indicating reduced SW tolerance. Loss of SW tolerance was accompanied by reductions in gill Na(+),K(+)-ATPase (NKA) activity and Na(+),K(+),2Cl(-) (NKCC) cotransporter protein abundance. Acid/Al exposure resulted in decreased plasma insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I) and 3,3',5'-triiodo-l-thyronine (T(3)) levels, whereas no effect of treatment was seen on plasma cortisol, growth hormone (GH), or thyroxine (T(4)) levels. Acid/Al exposure resulted in increased hematocrit and plasma glucose levels in FW, but both returned to control levels after 24h in SW. The results indicate that smolt development and SW tolerance are compromised by short-term exposure to acid/Al in the absence of detectable impacts on FW ion regulation. Loss of SW tolerance during short-term acid/Al exposure likely results from reductions in gill NKA and NKCC, possibly mediated by decreases in plasma IGF-I and T(3).

Abstract  Effects of environmental contamination on plant seasonal development have only rarely been properly documented. Monitoring of leaf growth in mountain birch, Betula pubescens subsp. czerepanovii, around a nickel-copper smelter at Monchegorsk hinted advanced budburst phenology in most polluted sites. However, under laboratory conditions budburst of birch twigs cut in late winter from trees naturally growing around three point polluters (nickel-copper smelter at Monchegorsk, aluminium factory at Kandalaksha, and iron pellet plant at Kostomuksha) showed no relationship with distance from the emission source. In a greenhouse experiment, budburst phenology of mountain birch seedlings grown in unpolluted soil did not depend on seedling origin (from heavily polluted vs. clean sites), whereas seedlings in metal-contaminated soil demonstrated delayed budburst. These results allow to attribute advanced budburst phenology of white birch in severely polluted sites to modified microclimate, rather than to pollution impact on plant physiology or genetics.